After several years, it was brought under control by forces loyal to the king and those of the Russian Empire. [345][346], w.^ Led by Władysław Anders, the Polish II Corps fought in 1944–1945 in the Allied Italian Campaign, where the corps' main engagement was the Battle of Monte Cassino. [53] Congress Poland lost its constitution and military, but formally remained a separate administrative unit within the Russian Empire. [45], The royal election of 1764 resulted in the elevation of Stanisław August Poniatowski,[46] a refined and worldly aristocrat connected to the Czartoryski family, but hand-picked and imposed by Empress Catherine the Great of Russia, who expected him to be her obedient follower. The National Democrats did not want to assume the lands they considered politically undesirable, as such territorial enlargement would result in a reduced proportion of citizens who were ethnically Polish. [21] In 1466, the milestone Peace of Thorn was concluded. [12][18], Attempts to reunite the Polish lands gained momentum in the 13th century, and in 1295, Duke Przemysł II of Greater Poland managed to become the first ruler since Bolesław II to be crowned king of Poland. [117] He initiated the policy of maintaining an equal distance and an adjustable middle course regarding the two great neighbors, later continued by Józef Beck. The uprising freed many from bondage and hastened decisions that led to the abolition of Polish serfdom in the Austrian Empire in 1848. [352], More recent general history of Poland books in English, Piast monarchy under Casimir I, Bolesław II and Bolesław III, Late Piast monarchy under Władysław I and Casimir III, Dynastic union with Lithuania, Władysław II Jagiełło, Early modern Poland under Sigismund I and Sigismund II, John III Sobieski and last military victories, Reforms and loss of statehood (1764–1795), Czartoryski reforms and Stanisław August Poniatowski, The Great Sejm of 1788–1791 and the Constitution of 3 May 1791, The Kościuszko Uprising of 1794 and the end of Polish–Lithuanian state, Revolts of the era of the Spring of Nations, Formation of modern Polish society under foreign rule (1864–1914), Nationalism, socialism and other movements, World War I and the issue of Poland's independence, Securing national borders, war with Soviet Russia, Piłsudski's coup and the Sanation Era (1926–1935), Social and economic trends of the interwar period, Soviet advance 1944–1945, Warsaw Uprising, War losses, extermination of Jews and Poles, Changing boundaries and population transfers, Economic and social developments of the early communist era, The Thaw and Gomułka's Polish October (1955–1958), Worker revolts, reforms of Gierek, the Polish pope and Solidarity (1970–1981), The martial law, Jaruzelski's rule and the end of communism (1981–1989), Democratic constitution, NATO and European Union memberships, sfn error: no target: CITEREFKobyliński2005 (, Maciej Bukowski, et al. By the late 1980s, the Polish reform movement Solidarity became crucial in bringing about a peaceful transition from a planned economy and a communist state to a capitalist economic system and a liberal parliamentary democracy. Overtaken by the German Revolution of 1918–1919 at home, the Germans released Piłsudski from prison. Now bounded by seven nations, Poland has waxed and waned over the centuries, buffeted by the forces of regional history. Historical records referring to the Polish state begin with the rule of Duke Mieszko I, whose reign commenced sometime before 963 and continued until his death in 992. [140] Hitler, incensed by the British and French declarations of support for Poland,[140] abrogated the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression in late April 1939. In the second half of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the Commonwealth was one of the largest and most populous states in contemporary Europe, with an area approaching one million square kilometres (0.39 million square miles) and a population of about ten million. [197] Allied with the Habsburg Monarchy, the Commonwealth did not directly participate in the Thirty Years' War. [183] According to the historians Brzoza and Sowa, about 2 million ethnic Poles were killed, but it is not known, even approximately, how many Polish citizens of other ethnicities perished, including Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Germans. [184][213] The remaining members of ethnic minorities were not encouraged, by the authorities or by their neighbors, to emphasize their ethnic identities. Poland is located at a geographic crossroads that links the forested lands of northwestern Europe to the sea lanes of the Atlantic Ocean and the fertile plains of the Eurasian frontier. This process resulted in the creation of the modern Polish state, the Third Polish Republic, founded in 1989. [163] From 1943, the leaders of the nationalistic NSZ collaborated with Nazi Germany in a case unique in occupied Poland. [270] The Workers' Defence Committee (KOR), established in response to the crackdown that followed, consisted of dissident intellectuals determined to support industrial workers, farmers and students persecuted by the authorities. This treaty divided Prussia to create East Prussia, the future Duchy of Prussia, a separate entity that functioned as a fief of Poland under the administration of the Teutonic Knights. events of the "Bloody Spring" of 1936), nationalist Ukrainians[p] and the activists of the incipient Belarusian movement. Stanisław August ruled the Polish–Lithuanian state until its dissolution in 1795. The German–Polish customs war, initiated by Germany in 1925, was one of the most damaging external factors that put a strain on Poland's economy. [158] Polish-Soviet diplomatic relations, broken since September 1939, were resumed in July 1941 under the Sikorski–Mayski agreement, which facilitated the formation of a Polish army (the Anders' Army) in the Soviet Union. [27] Towards the end of the war, the Lubomirski's rebellion, a major magnate revolt against the king, destabilized and weakened the country. In November 1990, the German–Polish Border Treaty, with unified Germany, was signed. [111] Political institutions and parties were allowed to function, but the electoral process was manipulated and those not willing to cooperate submissively were subjected to repression. Most of the country is a plain with no natural boundaries except the Carpathian Mountains in the south and the Oder and Neisse rivers in the west. A land of striking beauty, Poland is punctuated by great forests and rivers, broad plains, and tall mountains. [269][g][o], To revitalize the economy, from 1971 the Gierek regime introduced wide-ranging reforms that involved large-scale foreign borrowing. Public education was increasingly subjected to Russification and Germanisation measures. [53][b1] On 22 November, he became the temporary head of state. In May 1989 the Polish government fell, along with communist regimes throughout eastern Europe, beginning Poland’s rapid transformation into a democracy. For the first time in post-war history, Poland had a government led by non-communists, setting a precedent soon to be followed by other Eastern Bloc nations in a phenomenon known as the Revolutions of 1989. The Sanation regime persecuted the opposition within the military and in general. The United States and other Western countries responded by imposing economic sanctions against Poland and the Soviet Union. [166], From 1941, the implementation of the Nazi Final Solution began, and the Holocaust in Poland proceeded with force. However, in such cases wojewoda decisions have sometimes been invalidated by courts. They didn’t have to be polite if they didn’t feel like it. [327], j.^ "All the currently available documents of Nazi administration show that, together with the Jews, the stratum of the Polish intelligentsia was marked for total extermination. After the defeated Poles surrendered on 2 October, the Germans carried out a planned destruction of Warsaw on Hitler's orders that obliterated the remaining infrastructure of the city. [12] During the Congress of Gniezno in the year 1000, Holy Roman Emperor Otto III recognized the Archbishopric of Gniezno,[12] an institution crucial for the continuing existence of the sovereign Polish state. [12] In 1242, Wrocław became the first Polish municipality to be incorporated,[12] as the period of fragmentation brought economic development and growth of towns. Poland was compensated with the bulk of Silesia, including Breslau (Wrocław) and Grünberg (Zielona Góra), the bulk of Pomerania, including Stettin (Szczecin), and the greater southern portion of the former East Prussia, along with Danzig (Gdańsk), pending a final peace conference with Germany which eventually never took place. Everyone in that country is like a pimple they are ugly and gross, but if you pop them they just get worse. Updates? From 1930, persistent opponents of the regime, many of the leftist persuasion, were imprisoned and subjected to staged legal processes with harsh sentences, such as the Brest trials, or else detained in the Bereza Kartuska prison and similar camps for political prisoners. The existence of the Commonwealth ended in 1795 after a series of invasions and partitions of Polish territory carried out by the Russian Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Prussia in the west and the Habsburg Monarchy in the south. [33] The reign of Stephen Báthory of Hungary followed (r. 1576–1586). An appeal was issued to the workers of the other East European countries, urging them to follow in the footsteps of Solidarity. [21] This event marked the beginning of the period known as "Golden Liberty", when the state was ruled in principle by the "free and equal" Polish nobility. Whenever some one mentions Poland, the following few things instantly comes to our mind. On 23 August, an outcome contrary to the exertions of the Allies became a reality: in Moscow, Germany and the Soviet Union hurriedly signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into Nazi- and Soviet-controlled zones. He defeated the expanding Muslims at the Battle of Khotyn in 1673 and decisively helped deliver Vienna from a Turkish onslaught at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. [195] [238], In 1944, large agricultural holdings and former German property in Poland started to be redistributed through land reform, and industry started to be nationalized. [176][177] Stalin's view that Poland should be moved far to the west was accepted by Polish communists, whose organizations included the Polish Workers' Party and the Union of Polish Patriots. With the fall of the Third Reich, Poland effectively lost its independence once again, becoming a communist satellite state of the Soviet Union. [10], The West Slavic and Lechitic peoples as well as any remaining minority clans on ancient Polish lands were organized into tribal units, of which the larger ones were later known as the Polish tribes; the names of many tribes are found on the list compiled by the anonymous Bavarian Geographer in the 9th century. Extreme nationalist circles such as the National Radical Camp grew more outspoken. [5] Around 400 BC, Poland was settled by Celts of the La Tène culture. In Poland, the principal revolutionary figures were Roman Dmowski and Józef Piłsudski. [216] In times of severe political confrontation and radical economic change, members of Mikołajczyk's agrarian movement (the Polish People's Party) attempted to preserve the existing aspects of mixed economy and protect property and other rights. The most populous urban center, the capital city of Warsaw, replaced Danzig (Gdańsk) as the leading trade center, and the importance of the more prosperous urban social classes increased. [70], Social and economic changes were partial and gradual. [129] Eventually they achieved an overt politicization of the army that did nothing to help prepare the country for war. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. [209], According to an estimate by historian Jan Grabowski, about 50,000 of the 250,000 Polish Jews who escaped the Nazis during the liquidation of ghettos survived without leaving Poland (the remainder perished). [112] Another major opponent of Piłsudski, General Włodzimierz Zagórski, disappeared in 1927. Mieszko converted to Christianity in 966, following his marriage to Princess Doubravka of Bohemia, a fervent Christian. [12] During the reign of Otto's successor, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II, Bolesław fought prolonged wars with the Kingdom of Germany between 1002 and 1018. The December 1989 Sejm statute of credit relations reform introduced an "incredible" system of privileges for banks, which were allowed to unilaterally alter interest rates on already existing contracts. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The minorities had very little voice in the government. The Soviets withdrew their support for Gomułka, who insisted on the use of force; he and his close associates were subsequently ousted from the Polish Politburo by the Polish Central Committee. At the time of rising national movements, the plan thus ceased being a feature of Poland's politics. [171], The greatest single undertaking of the Polish resistance movement in World War II and a major political event was the Warsaw Uprising that began on 1 August 1944. The nobility's Targowica Confederation, formed in Russian imperial capital of Saint Petersburg, appealed to Catherine for help, and in May 1792, the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. In 1596, the Union of Brest split the Eastern Christians of the Commonwealth to create the Uniate Church of the Eastern Rite, but subject to the authority of the pope. [173][174][m], The bitterly fought uprising lasted for two months and resulted in the death or expulsion from the city of hundreds of thousands of civilians. [151], i.^ Joseph Stalin at the 1943 Tehran Conference discussed with Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt new post-war borders in central-eastern Europe, including the shape of a future Poland. The Russian and German languages were imposed in all public communication, and the Catholic Church was not spared from severe repression. the second half of the 10th century - at least I have not heard abt. The limited legal reforms in the Austrian Partition were overshadowed by its rural poverty. [200][201] About 1% (100,000) of the German civilian population east of the Oder–Neisse line perished in the fighting prior to the surrender in May 1945,[202] and afterwards some 200,000 Germans in Poland were employed as forced labor prior to being expelled. [86][95][96], The Peace of Riga settled the eastern border by preserving for Poland a substantial portion of the old Commonwealth's eastern territories at the cost of partitioning the lands of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lithuania and Belarus) and Ukraine. In December 1989, the Sejm approved the Balcerowicz Plan to transform the Polish economy rapidly from a centrally planned one to a free market economy.
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